Amman — The book Palestine between Two Conquests, by Jordanian historian Dr. Mohammad Irshid Al-Oqaili, offers a historical examination of pivotal moments in Palestine’s history. It traces the evolution of its political, civilizational and religious significance across the ages, highlights its Arab and Islamic roots, and explores the transformations it underwent in modern and contemporary history.
اضافة اعلان
Published by Alaan Publishers and Distributors, the book examines Palestine’s history within its Arab-Islamic context, beginning with ancient times, passing through the Islamic conquest and the Umayyad and Abbasid eras, and extending to the Crusades and the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. The author highlights how Palestine’s geographical and strategic location made it a focal point of competition among regional and international powers, as well as a passage for armies and invasions that swept through the Levant over the centuries.
Al-Oqaili devotes particular attention to the Crusades, examining the political circumstances that contributed to the success of the Crusader campaigns, foremost among them the divisions and conflicts between Islamic powers. These developments led to the occupation of Jerusalem and the establishment of Crusader kingdoms and principalities across the Levant. In contrast, he traces the efforts of Muslim leaders, from Imad al-Din Zengi and Nur al-Din Mahmoud to Saladin, to unite the Islamic front and confront the Crusader presence.
The Battle of Hattin and the recapture of Jerusalem in 1187 are presented as central milestones in the book. The author links Saladin’s victories to his project of unifying Egypt and the Levant, stressing the importance of political and military unity in reclaiming occupied territories. He also examines the Mamluks’ role in confronting the Mongol invasion, beginning with the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 and culminating in the end of the Crusader presence in the Levant in 1291.
In his account of modern history, the author draws parallels between the Crusader experience and the transformations Palestine underwent with the rise of the Zionist movement. He highlights the impact of external support and Arab and Islamic divisions on developments in the Palestinian cause. He argues that studying history is not limited to documenting past events, but also offers lessons on the importance of unity, planning and preparedness in confronting challenges.
In the book’s introduction, Al-Oqaili notes that most contemporary studies have focused on Palestine’s political, social and cultural dimensions since the beginning of the 20th century, particularly after World War I. During that period, the efforts of British colonialism and the Zionist movement converged to establish a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine, before the United States played a prominent role in supporting the Zionist entity after World War II.
By contrast, the author argues that studies addressing Palestine’s history during the Islamic eras remain limited, despite its Arab roots extending back centuries before Islam and its Arab-Islamic identity becoming firmly established following the spread of Islam across the Levant.
The book examines the Crusades, which the author links to the fragmentation and divisions among Islamic powers at the time. It highlights the roles played by Nur al-Din Zengi, Saladin, al-Zahir Baybars and Qalawun in confronting the Crusader presence, reclaiming territories and bringing Crusader rule in the region to an end.
Al-Oqaili emphasizes the importance of the Battle of Hattin as a pivotal moment in Palestine’s history. Saladin’s victory paved the way for the recapture of Jerusalem, while the Mamluks continued his efforts to end the Crusader presence in the Levant.
The author connects these events to developments in modern Palestine, arguing that international support for the Zionist movement contributed to the establishment of the Zionist entity. He also stresses that the resilience of Palestinians and their attachment to their land represent a continuation of a long historical struggle against invasions and occupations.
The book offers an account linking the past to the present, highlighting Palestine’s place in Arab-Islamic history and the impact of political and military transformations on its course over the centuries.
Palestine between Two Conquests consists of 12 chapters covering Palestine’s history throughout the Islamic eras, from ancient times to the Mamluk period. The first chapter examines ancient Palestine, the administrative organization of the Levant, and the Semitic and Arab migrations to the region. The second addresses the Arab presence and the kingdoms and tribes that successively inhabited the area.
The third chapter explores the early stages of the Islamic conquest during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), through military campaigns and expeditions. The fourth examines the Islamic conquest during the Rashidun era and its major battles, including Ajnadayn and Yarmouk, as well as the conquests of Damascus, Jerusalem and Caesarea. It also discusses the administrative, military and financial systems established during that period and the state's position towards non-Muslim communities under its rule.
The fifth chapter is devoted to Palestine under the Umayyads and their caliphs’ interest in Jerusalem. The sixth examines the early Abbasid era, the position of Palestinians towards it, and claims concerning Charlemagne’s protection of Jerusalem. The seventh chapter traces Palestine’s history from the Tulunid to the Fatimid era, examining the role of Arab powers and rulers in regional events and the conflict between the Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, which turned Palestine into an arena of competition between them.
The eighth chapter addresses the Crusader invasion of the Levant and Palestine and the establishment of Crusader kingdoms amid divisions among Islamic powers. The ninth traces the efforts of Imad al-Din Zengi and his son Nur al-Din to unite the Islamic front. The tenth focuses on Saladin’s role in unifying Egypt and the Levant, his victory at Hattin and the recapture of Jerusalem, followed by the consequences of divisions within the Ayyubid family and how the Crusaders exploited them.
The eleventh chapter examines the administrative systems under Crusader and Ayyubid rule and the Crusaders’ attempts to change Palestine’s religious and civilizational character. The final chapter explores the Mamluks’ role in halting the Mongol advance at the Battle of Ain Jalut and ending the Crusader presence in the Levant and Palestine.
The author notes that the book seeks to highlight the most significant milestones in Palestine’s history throughout the Islamic eras, while acknowledging that some gaps may remain, given that its political and administrative history was closely connected to the centres of power in Damascus, Baghdad and Egypt. He hopes the work will build on the efforts of earlier historians and contribute to further research into Palestine’s history.
The book’s conclusion emphasizes that Palestine was, throughout ancient and medieval history, part of the Levant and a natural extension of the Arabian Peninsula, while in modern and contemporary history it represents the heart of the Arab homeland. Its strategic location gave it considerable importance, making it a passage for armies and a battleground for conflicts between various powers. This made it a target for invasions and colonial ambitions and contributed to the convergence of Western colonial interests with the Zionist movement.
The author points out that Palestine’s earliest inhabitants were the Arab Jebusites and Canaanites, who established an ancient civilization with an Arab character. The region subsequently faced numerous invasions, including those by the Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks and Romans. However, these invasions failed to erase its Arab identity and civilizational heritage. With the advent of Islam, Palestine was liberated from Byzantine rule and became part of the Arab-Islamic world. Jerusalem also acquired a distinctive religious status through its connection to Al-Aqsa Mosque, the first of the two Qiblas and the third of the Two Holy Mosques.
Al-Oqaili argues that Palestine held an important position under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates before becoming a focal point of conflict among different Islamic powers, particularly the Fatimids in Egypt and the Seljuks in the Levant. Political divisions and competition among Islamic states and principalities weakened the Muslim world, facilitating the success of the Crusader campaigns, the occupation of Jerusalem and the establishment of Crusader kingdoms and principalities across the Levant.
However, Islamic resistance intensified under the leadership of Imad al-Din Zengi, followed by Nur al-Din Mahmoud, who recognized that liberating Palestine required uniting Islamic powers. Saladin continued this approach by unifying Egypt and the Levant and defeating the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. He recaptured Jerusalem after nearly 90 years of Crusader occupation, demonstrating tolerance in his treatment of the city’s inhabitants and his opponents. However, Saladin’s death and the division of the Ayyubid state led to the continuation of the conflict.
During the Mamluk era, Muslims confronted the threat posed by the Mongols and Crusaders. They achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 and continued to liberate coastal cities until the Crusader presence in the Levant came to an end in 1291.
The author identifies similarities between the Crusader and Zionist movements in terms of their origins in the Western environment, their use of religion to justify expansion and settlement, their reliance on external support, and their exploitation of Arab divisions. He argues that the success of the Crusader invasion was linked to the lack of Islamic unity and that unifying Egypt and the Levant was fundamental to Saladin’s victory.
Al-Oqaili concludes that confronting the Zionist movement requires achieving a minimum level of Arab and Islamic unity and solidarity, ending divisions, and uniting political, economic, social and intellectual resources. He also stresses the need to develop education and technology, strengthen military preparedness, prepare new generations spiritually, morally and politically, make use of international power dynamics, and build support for the Palestinian cause.
Reporting: Aziza Ali
